Flying is fascinating and today practically everyone can afford that age-old dream of mankind. When first planes took off already reliable some physicists still reasoned machines heavier than air could never fly. Really phenomenal however is, still no theory is commonly accepted, so question why airplanes fly is discussed on and on.Everyone spontaneous answers this question: ´because distance upside of wing is longer, air upside moves faster ...´ - like sketched at picture 05.04.01 from A to B - however likely long is distance from B to A - and wings installed back to front won´t fly - however any waver-thin sail (with practically same length frontside like backside) produces drive most reliable.
Essentially more professional seams (commonly preferred) Circulation Theory: air moves around wing, backside (C) down, downside ahead, frontside (D) upwards and upside back again. However, continuously air masses can not circulate that kind. Only at nose air can lift, afterward air moves separate and opposite directions, at rear end of wing air moves downward - however by guarantee never ahead to nose again.
This theory is based on inevitably coming up vortices behind aircraft, like clear to see at E and F. These vortices start at outer end of wings and reach far back. It´s assumed all vortex-threats must be closed loop, so these vortices would have to rotate around wing, from outer end to body, and analogue at other wing, so building long stretched vortex ring. However, vortex threats not at all must be closed loops and at the other hand, that theory mixes up most hindering secondary side-effect with primary cause of lift.
Contrary to Formula and Laws
All common theories however can not really explain phenomenon why most strong lifting forces (G) exactly affect where hitting particles (H) should press down plane most hard, thus forces affecting just by opposite vectors. Central point - most not spoken about - however is, lift costs nearly null energy input. Plane demands energy for drive i.e. to compensate resistance versus motion ahead, lifting weight of plane versus gravity however costs minimum or null energy (totally contrary to scientific law of energy constant).
Old Archimedes detected law of lift and also his ships swim ´for nothing´ at waters, however only if lighter than medium. Old Newton with his law of action and reaction is asked for explanations - however won´t work as air shows no beams. Laws and formula of many known physicists are mentioned, each describing part aspects of flux-science rather sufficiently - however lift exists not based on formula, but based on real movements of real particles. So cause and essence of lift are only to detect by description of real processes.
The last Time
Repeatedly I described process of lift at my website, e.g. by that animation and three pictures of at 05.04.03. At the beginning marked air particles are neighbours vertical line. Already before wing arrives, air is ´sucked´ towards nose, even from downside (A). Particles fly faster upside (B), however not to meet previous neighbours again at rear end, but upside particles fly much far backward (D).
Particles downside at first are accelerated backward (A), afterward small border layer stick at wing surface and particles are dragged some ahead (C), at rear end particles again are sucked backward (E). There comes up no clear vortices (only at outer end of wing) and not at all comes up any circulation.
At the following I describe process of lift at wings once more very detailed. Again this subject has no direct concern to general subject of ether-physics, however here well is demonstrated, any ´disturbance´ (as Maurer would say) affects consequences within wide environment of medium. Consequences and side-effects of these motion processes are easy to detect by example of wing, important for any application with wing-like elements (e.g. pumps and turbines), however also with some wider aspects. So step by step now causes and affects of lift are discussed.
Trigger Element
At picture 05.04.04 schematic is shown cross-sectional view of wing (yellow). At first is interesting backside part, which in principle is triangle (A-B-C). Height of that triangle is assumed 0.3 m (H = 0.3) and length is assumed 1.8 m (L = 1.8). So relation of length and height is 6:1. When wing moves left within space by that length (B-C), air particles can fall down that height difference. That´s trigger for all following processes.
Other numbers here are assumed rough so calculations become simple. For example, at D ´action-radius´ (red circle) of a particle (red central spot) is sketched (resp. its maximum way while one second). Molecular speed of that particle is some 450 m/s (VM = 450). Particles however won´t fly straight ahead all times, but meet diagonal in average, e.g. when transporting sound. So here at first, motions ahead are assumed walking zigzag lines and possibility of coming ahead is assumed by sound speed of some 300 m/s (VS = 300). Height H of 0.3 m thus would take one millisecond (TH = 1 MS).
Speed of plane resp. wing in longitudinal direction is assumed half of sound speed, thus some 150 m/s (VL = 150). So flying length of 1.8 m will take 12 milliseconds (TL = 12 MS).
Thin-out vertical
Upside of apex of wing six particles (red points) are marked representing all air particles (between A and E). When wing has moved 12 milliseconds to left side, these particles have more space (from C to F). They can forge down by distance of height H. Upside of A, collisions occur by normal distances (ND), however upside of C these distances between collisions become longer (LD).
Upside of that part of wing thus comes up area of less density. Likely amount of particles within wider volume same time stands for less pressure. Instead of ´normal´ atmospheric pressure of e.g. 1000 millibar (NP = 1000) thus there exists less pressure, theoretic ´depression´ of only 917 millibar (TP = 917).
At chapter last but one, 05.02. ´Three Times Suction-Effect´, this process is described at picture 05.02.02, there by motions of horizontal direction into relative emptiness (while here analogue process runs into vertical direction). In principle, first particle falls into void (here wing-surface making way free for downward motion) and comes back delayed for collision with next particle. After each two ´strokes´ one next particle follows, so ´suction-area´ spreads upward.
Upward and downward movements not only occur into vertical direction but by zigzag, so with sound speed. After each two movements that ´information´ (more void) moves upward, i.e. by half of sound speed that thin-out of density resp. reduced pressure spreads upward (VP = 150). As here also flight-speed (VL) is assumed by half sound speed resp. these 150 m/s, border of thin-out wanders diagonal backward-upward. That area of less density here is marked red.
Horizontal Wind
Within that area of relative emptiness occur movements not only in vertical direction by longer distances between collisions, but naturally also into horizontal direction movements are likely possible, like picture 05.04.05 schematic shows.
If particle at border of thinned-out area occasionally is pushed towards right, it also flies longer distances until next collision (e.g. at G), correspondingly one sixth longer. Particles like these return delayed to next collision (e.g. at H), so all locations of collisions (e.g. at I) are shifted correspondingly towards right side.
Particle positioned at A has chance for most collisions within thin area until rear end of wing. This particle will finally not be positioned at C (based on its vertical falling) - but same time will wander to K (based on shifted collisions).
At this snapshot picture, thin-out starts at A, however emptyy area wanders with airplane towards left side, so particle momentary positioned at A indeed can fall into backward emptiness (reaching far back).
Horizontal movements occur by conditions likely to previous vertical movements. That´s why line F-K towards vertical direction shows angle like wing-surfaces to horizontal direction (angle A-C-B is identical to angle K-F-C). That vertical triangle is one sixth (by H = 0.3) longer, so also distance C-K is some longer than height of wing.
Particle at A wanders towards right side by these 0.35 m during these 12 milliseconds. So speed of that movement is some 0.03 m each millisecond resp. 30 m/s (VM = 30). Thus based on ´suction-effect´ direct upside of slope-part of wing, wind of nearby 100 km/h comes up. Even no wind exists at point A (there VW = 0), flow comes up contrary to movement of wing, at rear end showing strength of remarkable storm.
At this picture at M is sketched ´action-radius´ of ´resting´ particle (e.g. far ahead of wing), which shows distance of 0.3 length-units until next collision (KD = 0.3, corresponding to grid-scale used here). At N is sketched corresponding action-radius of particle within area of less density, which is extended towards downside and backside (red sickle) as there distances until next collisions are 0.35 units (KD = 0.35).
That graph is comparable with earlier used ´motion-pattern or -types´ for resting particles and particles within flows of different speeds. Analogue, particle here within normal environment is marked as motion-type O (after collision positioned anywhere at round circle). Particle upside-back of wing is marked as motion-type P (after collision positioned anywhere at that curve reaching one sixth more towards right-side-down).
Real Wind
At diagonal border line towards thinned-out area thus particles should accelerate from 0 to 100 km/h immediately. That´s no problem as all particles at frontal collisions ´accelerate´ form 0 to 1500 km/h. However that wind starts not just at border line, because any particle flying backward leaves relative void. Horizontal movement naturally results also progressive thin-out towards areas further in front of wing.
At picture 05.04.06 left side, that secondary thinned-out area is marked dark-red up to vertical line near apex of wing (A). For six layers of air each speed of wind (VW) is noted, where speed is calculated by simple average of particles ways before and behind border line. So resulting are flows increasing faster upside downward by e.g. 3, 7, 12, 18, 24 resp. 30 m/s.
Previous thin-out into vertical direction well produced wandering movements, as particles as a whole moved some down. However that´s no real wind, because every particle inevitably is rejected at surface of wing - and none of particles can leave that local area (into wing), based on these vertical movements.
Horizontal movement however is real wind as particles wanders out backward. They are not rejected at certain point (like previous surface), but some collide probably some later. Some particles probably escape in total from their original location, because far backside still exists relative void resp. that wind is running further on backward. One also should remember, not only single particles are moving but real crowds are falling into inevitably existing ´empty bubbles´ (see chapter last but one).
This horizontal flow-component thus won´t end upside of rear end of wing and wind does not start finally at previous border line. Thin-out towards frontside of that ´real wind´ spreads ahead not only with half of sound-speed (as vertical thin-out spreads upwards). That ´information´ (collision partner wandering backside off) is obvious just for any particle whenever hit occasionally into backward direction, i.e. information of new possible movement wanders ahead by speed of sound.
At this picture right side, speeds of air layers are show as shifted-motions of particles which previously were positioned straight vertical line upside apex of wing. This graph corresponds to black line resp. curve of upside animation resp. at picture 05.04.03. From upside downward wind becomes faster and particles wander off rear end of wing (which same time moves towards left side), at downside layers much faster and wider than further upside.
Suction of fast Flow
Between neighbouring flows of different speeds exists suction-effect, described in details at chapter 05.02. Between involved movement-types (like also of ´action-radius´ resp. type P at previous picture 05.04.05) occur ´rear-end-collisions´. At the one hand each faster flow is compressed (resp. bended), at the other hand particles occasionally fall into faster flow without resistance, increasing density and speed of faster flow. At this process are involved not only single particles, but based on void and uneven spreading of particles within gases in general, whole crowds or parcels fall into fast driving bubbles.
This effect occurs everywhere within whole volume of these flows, thus also within that areas upside of wing at all locations. Previous calculations concerning pressure and speed might theoretical be right, however can never mirror real processes exactly. By known and most effective ´suction effect of faster flows´ (see hurricanes etc.) flux alongside surface becomes much faster and also spreading of density is much more distinct.
Vortex-Train
At rear-end of wing thus exists storm-like flow backward-down. This flow meets air from downside area of wing, which is ´resting´ resp. some turbulent because sticking at surface. Flow from upside hits onto downside air masses and compression comes up. This process occurs on both sides of airplane body, so increased pressure can expand only outward-aside.
Opposite, this downward-movement still ´drags´ air from upside downward, same time previous thin-out spreads further upside. So inflow of air can come only from relative resting areas aside, however all flows in addition are moving backward off. So these vortices cylinders become build up like very impressive shown at previous picture 05.04.01 at E and F.
Also these vortices border on neighbouring areas of slower movements, so also far back of plane that suction effect of each faster flow works. These both vortices trains thus build contrary turning tornados inclusive their self-acceleration. Large planes mix up air space for minutes - however that side-effect is secondary, most hindering occurrence and not at all is primary reason for lift.
Lift becomes affecting really at that backside part of wind, as downside of wing nearly normal atmospheric pressure exists while upside wind glides alongside surface diagonal downward. Wind´s static pressure is much less and pressure difference affects as upward directed force. Nevertheless, prevailing part of lift-forces appear at frontside part of wing, so processes there must be considered.
Information ahead
At picture 05.04.07 again yellow wing is drawn and primary (vertical) thin-out area upside-back is marked light-red. Profile of wing at its backside part (in principle) is triangle-shaped and takes nearby three quarter (B-C) of total length of wing. Area of secondary (horizontal) thin-out area again is marked dark-red, now however drawn also further ahead.
Upside was assumed rightly, spreading of thin-out (resp. upside in the figurative sense also called ´information´) into horizontal direction occurs by sound speed. Valid as clear approval is fact, lift at wings disappears if plane flies ultrasound-speed. Each wing-profile shows special characteristic graph concerning speed and lift. Increased speed results increasing lift, which however at each excessive speeds becomes weaker and finally disappears at all.
Starting point of considerations was, primary trigger for lift occurs at apex of wing (B) and effect is completely build out at rear-end of wing. At this example was assumed, plane flying by half sound speed. As previous ´information´ runs ahead through space by sound-speed, it´s running ahead of plane by half sound-speed. Here now at this picture is assumed, that information becomes affecting at least three of these quarters ahead of primary trigger-point B.
Right side are drawn again these lines of previous picture 05.04.06. They represent shift of neighbouring particles by winds of different speeds. New curves are adjusted as differences to vertical direction are balanced step by step. However must be considered, stronger winds represent stronger ´suction´ (by shifting of their locations of collisions) and thus show stronger effects concerning particle further ahead. The higher order and speed of flow, the less negative collisions occur and the less resistance exists for following particles.
Suction by Void and fast Flow
Thinned-out space resp. speeds of winds thus reach ahead not linear but intensive movements affect correspondingly stronger into space ahead of wing. Maximum speed exists alongside wing upper surface, so its ´suction´ reaches also ahead of nose towards downside-ahead. These winds still won´t drag any particles behind but only offer void space for particles occasionally hit into likely directions - here even from downside-ahead just over that nose.
At picture 05.04.08 again are drawn these ´vertical wind-curves´, now in addition accentuated by ´horizontal curves´ of different air layers. Depending of wind speeds these partial areas are coloured, from resting air (dark blue) to most fast flow (light blue).
Like at flows of different speed at backside part of wing, strong flows alongside frontside part of wing affect by strong ´suction´ to neighbouring flows. In addition, surface there is bended and alongside curved surfaces that suction-effect is most effective.
Flow-threats are bended towards faster flow all times and also that flow by itself becomes bended - and now can fly that curve without resistance (like described in details at chapter 05.02 ´Suction´ at picture 05.02.05). By view into direction of flow coming from downside-upwards, this surface steady turns aside (up to and analogue to surface at apex) and thus additional void appears with corresponding suction. Curvature of profile at this part is critical concerning lift and resistance thus must be adapted to flight-speed wanted.
Order Factor Wall
Repeatedly I pointed out function of walls towards flows. Sloped end of wing represents relative void and was described as trigger for vertical thin-out there. Corresponding wall does not exist for horizontal movements so real wind with shifting of particles backward far outside comes up.
Within free space all local areas of relative void can be filled up from all sides. As described in details by basic chapter 05.02. at picture 05.02.05, void aside wall however can only be filled up from outside and prevailingly alongside wall. That´s valid here alongside total upper surface: behind apex appears relative void, which spreads to frontside parts as strong winds. Any particle running fast appears like void for any following particle - and just that void never is filled up from wall, thus exists continuously.
Minimum and maximum static Pressure
As ahead and above of nose that ´suction´ can only be filled up from downside, and as bended flow there can flow without resistance around curved surface, just at this part of wing´s upper surface exists maximum speed. Not only direct at surface but also each upper layer of air shows its maximum flow just there. At these parts of light colours frontside-upward thus within all layers exists minimum pressure cross to flow´s directions. So there at wing surface weights most less static pressure. Air indeed escapes upwards of nose while wing flies ahead resp. into area of most less pressure.
Onto downside surface of wing, in principle weights total atmospheric pressure. However air of that region is not totally calm but is sucked back little bit, afterwards some dragged ahead and finally sucked backward at rear end. So also at downside surface affects atmospheric pressure not by total strength. Difference of static pressures between upside and downside surfaces results wanted lifting forces.
Calculation of Lift-Forces
Many formula are used for calculating these forces. Mentioned circulation-theory for example works with a factor ´circulation´ (deduced of backside vortices trails resp. representing practically speed differences between upside and downside surfaces of wing). Other calculations assume, lift-forces should correspond to air masses pushed down (so pure mechanical view without any consideration concerning suction effects). Mostly are used Cw- and Ca-numbers (which however are determined empirical for every profile and angle of attack). Mostly is used density of medium (while pressure probably would be factor more realistic). Speed all times is used by square (probably too simplistic view). Thus only effective surface is clear factor for lift-force in total.
All formula however fit not to fact, above sound-speed no lift is achieved (thus factor sound-speed theoretically should be involved in any formula). So I offer attempt for calculations, deduced by real reasons of processes producing lift-forces (using numbers of previous pictures 05.04.04 and 05.04.05).
Behind apex (A) of profile air can fall down at distance H while time TL (until wing moved distance L towards left). Horizontal wind corresponds to previous downward-speed plus some additional part corresponding to relation H / L (previous sixth), so wind of this example achieves 30 m/s within space.
This wind continuously fills up (by parts) void alongside distance L. Based on suction, corresponding mass of air must come from frontside, however alongside shorter distance from apex to nose. Front part of profile here was assumed one third of backside part, so in front of apex wind should move three times faster, for example thus by 90 m/s resp. some 300 km/h. Average speed alongside whole upside surface thus would be some 45 m/s.
Now dynamic pressures are calculable (by Bernoulli formula), at downside surface of wing with flight-speed of 150 m/s and at upside surface flight-speed plus wind, so of 150 + 45 = 195 m/s. Instead of that relation resp. factor of 195 / 150 = 1.3 commonly speeds are calculated by square, so factor 38.025 / 22.500 = 1.7 results for dynamic pressures. As remaining static pressures relate opposite, factor of some 1 / 1.7 = 0.6 results resp. difference of 0.4 in favour of upside surface.
Atmospheric pressure weights by one metric ton each square-meter, so lift-forces of that wing would be 400 kg/qm. Wing was assumed 2.4 m long and span e.g. of 20 m would result surface of 48 sq.m and lift of 19.600 kg - what should be checked (by qualified men, because I don´t enjoy computing). For example would be interesting to check this approach concerning Ca-numbers at different angles of attack: apex wanders and thus relation between front- and backside part of profile and also relation of H and L.
Soundbarrier
At this example roughly was calculated wind of 90 m/s at front part of wing. This part is 0.3 m high and 0.6 m long, flight-speed is 150 m/s, so air in average already needs 75 m/s to escape upward. Only if these high wind-speeds at nose come up, these extreme low Cw-numbers of wing profiles are possible (pipe with diameter of only 3 cm resp. 7 sq.cm produces more resistance than that wing of 2.40 * 0.3 m resp. some 3.200 sq.cm cross-sectional surface).
If this plane should fly faster, relation of height and length must be reduced, i.e. profiles more flat are to apply. Wind-speed in front of nose however must accelerate already far ahead. ´Information´ of wind resp. its suction-effect however is running through space only by sound speed. Finally when plane by itself flies with that speed, wind no longer can escape nose of wing.
Suddenly ´bow-wave´ of dense air comes up and plane must push these masses continuously ahead, i.e. must accelerate air in front. Naturally these areas of high density will thin out later on, however air is only slowed down little bit. There come up turbulences and no longer exists ordered wind flows alongside surfaces, so prerequisite for lift got lost.
Theory of Lift
At picture 05.04.09 once more are shown previous areas of winds and pressures, now however colour-nuances are drawn by smooth transition. Movement processes and effects are marked by arrows. This theory of lift here is summarized in brief, by different steps from cause to final effect.
Preliminary is to state, ´suction´ never works any kind ´dragging or attracting´, but suction only offers longer distances until next collision, only for particles which got pushed occasionally into that direction, just by normal molecular movements. Above this, particles there can fly more narrow aside each other and flow by structure of better order. Term ´suction´ here is used exclusive that sense and understanding.
A. Trigger reason for lift is sloped upside surface of backside part of wing, which continuously produces relative empty space while moving ahead. Into that void particles fall down vertical direction. They are rejected by surface and return upward with some delay.
B. Opposite, region upside of that original void becomes thinned-out, as locations of all collisions are shifted downward, and ways between collisions become some longer. Area of reduced density spreads upward by half sound-speed.
C. Into that area thinned-out, particles fall also into horizontal direction, and also these ways between collisions become longer. Backward showing motions are not limited by certain surface, so real shift of particles exists, i.e. real steady flow comes up. As thinning-out spreads from downside upward, wind near surface can start earlier and becomes stronger than within air layers further upside.
D. At neighbouring flows of different speeds, faster flow affects like suction towards neighbour flows, so particles of slower flow are integrated within faster flow without resistance. Flows within downside layers become more dense and accelerated.
E. These winds wandering backside off plane represent also suction for areas ahead resp. leave relative void, which spreads towards frontside by sound-speed. That void alongside surface can only be filled up from upside and prevailingly alongside wall from areas ahead. Even winds exist far upside of wing, motions alongside surface build up much stronger.
F. Most strong flow alongside front of upside surface affects correspondingly strong suction effect, also down-ahead below nose. Air masses filling up backside void and moving off downside-back must be ´sucked in´ from areas ahead, however at much shorter distance.
G. Areas far ahead show slow motions at the beginning, which again affect bending, compressing and accelerating at fast flow near surface. Alongside curved surface upside and behind nose, bended flow can run without resistance.
H. Downside of wing, air keeps not totally calm, however affecting onto downside surface practically by atmospheric pressure.
I. At upside surface static pressure is reduced corresponding to speed of wind alongside surface. Difference of static pressures of upward and downward surface represents lifting force, which in total shows vertical upward and some ahead. ´Production´ of that lift costs no corresponding energy-input, because ´protection´ of upside surface versus atmospheric pressure exclusively is based on suction, wind there comes up automatic, as particles fall into each relative emptiness by pure chance and based only at normal molecular motions.
Readers may judge my theory of lift is logic and understandable description of real cause, processes and effects of that ´phenomenon´ - and readers may well compare these statements with other theories.
PS. Concerning calculations see also chapter 05.12. ´A380 and Lift´.
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